Postingan
Cara Membuat "Baca Selengkapnya"
Nah lho, kok posting di Blog saya terlalu panjang ....
Gimana motongnya ... ???
Jangan khawatir ... Buat para blogger yang masih baru dan jangan bingung kalau seandainya postingannya terlalu panjang pada halaman utama blog Anda. Dengan metode "Read More" atau bisa diganti dengan kata "Baca Selengkapnya" atau juga kata-kata lain yang tujuanya link untuk melihat postingan selengkapnya adalah salah satu cara yang terbaik.....
Terus bagaimana membuatnya !!!
Begini caranya, berdasarkan sumber yang didapat, langkah-langkahnya sebagai berikut :
1. Masuklah dalam www.blogger.com yang kemudian membuka menu Layout lalu pilih Edit HTML.
2. Kasih tanda cek (centang) pada cekbox "expand widget template"
3. Cari kode berikut di Template blog kamu (tempatnya kira-kira pada 1/4 bagian bawah kode hmtl) :
kalo dah ketemu maka dibawahnya ada kode ini :
4. Kalau sudah ketemu, Ganti kode yang ini
Read More......
Tulisan "Read More....." itu bisa kamu rubah, misalnya jadi "Baca Selengkapnya".
5. Simpan hasil pengeditan.
6. Kemudian pilih menu Setting lalu pilih Formatting
7. Pada kotak Post Template isikan kode berikut:
8. Kemudian Simpan.
9. Ketika memposting, kan disana ada 2 tab pilihan tuh, yang "Compose" dan "Edit Html", Nah kamu pilih Yang "Edit HTML", Maka secara otomatis akan tampak kode seperti berikut :
10. Letakkan abstraksi posting atau artikel yang akan ditampilkan dihalama utama (sebelum tulisan "Redmore") diatas kode ini : sementara sisanya yaitu keseluruhan posting letakkan di antara kode dan
11. Ini yang paling penting diantara semua proses diatas yaitu ..... Selesai..... he..he..he..
Selamat Mencoba... and TitiDiJe ya....
Bagi teman2 yang suka posting di forum2, ini ada info menarik. Bulan lalu saya temukan sebuah forum yang baru di launching dan kelebihan dari forum ini adalah admin forum akan membayar kita sebesar $ 0.1 / post, max 50 posts/ day dengan minimal request for withdrawal earning $5 (50 posts).
Karena sekarang sedang diadakan Referral Contest dengan Hadiah utama $1000.
Registering member gratis. Referral baru dianggap aktiv jika sudah pernah posting sebanyak 50 post, dan jangan buat junk post/ spam.
Ada 4 pilihan Bahasa: Inggris, Rusia, China dan Arab.
Bagi yang berminat ini dia forumnya DISINI
Payoneer Debit MasterCard Gratis ...
Dapatkan Payoneer Debit MasterCard secara GRATIS !!
Kartu berlogo MasterCard dan berfungsi seperti MasterCard pada umumnya dan bisa untuk menarik uang
tunai di semua ATM yang berlogo MasterCard diseluruh dunia termasuk ATM di Indonesia (Rupiah).
Selain itu Kartu ini juga bisa untuk melakukan transaksi online di situs yang menawarkan
pembayaran dengan MasterCard seperti eBay,amazon,Paypal,dll.Tidak hanya itu saja,ada peluang bisnisnya lho...
Earning/komisinya langsung di transfer ke Debit MasterCard anda.
Kartu Debit MasterCard akan dikirim langsung ke alamat rumah anda via POS.
Apakah ini benar-benar GRATIS..?? Ya 100% GRATIS !
Apakah ada biaya lain dikemudian hari? Seperti biaya aktivasi kartu,biaya pengiriman,dll?
Tidak!!
Sudah saya katakan ini benar-benar 100 % GRATIS !!!
Cara untuk mendapatkan Payoneer Debit MasterCard sangat mudah. Yaitu dengan
bergabung ke salah satu program sosial media di .
www.friendfinder.com
Langkah langkahnya sbb :
1. Klik link ini : www.friendfinder.com
2. Lalu klik Join Now
3. Isilah data-data Anda dg lengkap.
4. I am a : Man jika Anda laki-laki, Woman jika Anda perempuan
5. Interested in meet a : Man jika ingin mencari/berteman dg laki-laki, woman dg perempuan,
atau bisa Anda pilih dua-duanya.
6. For : Friendship (berteman), Dating (ketemuan), Serious relationship (hubungan serius),
Marriage (menikah), bisa Anda pilih lebih dari satu, pilih semuanya juga bisa.
7. Birthdate : Tanggal lahir Anda.
8. Country : Negara Anda.
9. Zip/Postal code : Kosongkan saja, jika Anda berada selain di Amerika ( US only )
10. Email Address : Isikan email Anda
11. Username : username Anda antara 4 sampai 16 karakter
12. Lalu klik Click Here and Have Fun
13. Setelah itu Anda masuk ketahap berikutnya.
14. City : Kota tempat tinggal Anda
15. Closest City: Sama seperti diatas
16. State: Propinsi Anda
17. Your Height : Tinggi Anda
18. Your Body Type : Tipe badan Anda
19. Your Race : Ras Anda atau suku Anda biasanya kalau Indonesia adalah Asia
20. Marital Status : Status pernikahan Anda
21. Your Religion : Agama Anda
22. Your Education : Pendidikan terakhir Anda
24. Your Occupation : Pekerjaan Anda misal: Staff office, jika Anda pegawai, Business jika Anda pengusaha dll.
25. Introduction Title : Judul tentang diri Anda,
misal : I am a good Man atau I like Travelling, dll minimum 10 karakter
27. Tell others about yourself : Ceritakanlah tentang diri Anda,
misalnya: I am a good women, I like travelling and my hobby reading, computer, sports,
and others, i love new friend men or women, buatlah suka-suka Anda, minimumnya 50 karakter.
28. Jika Anda sudah memiliki foto uploadlah foto Anda, klik browse lalu carilah file yg berisi foto Anda.
Jika Anda belum punya fota bisa Anda kosongkan dulu, nanti dikemudian hari bisa Anda isi kembali.
29. Setelah itu klik Click to Join. Maka akan ada email masuk di email anda.
30. Setelah itu bukalah email Anda, lalu klik Activate Now
Maka Anda sudah diaktivasi, jika Anda ingin login isilah dg username dan password yg ada di email Anda.
Notes : Anda mesti mengisi formulir dengan data-data yang benar karena Kartu akan dikirim
ke alamat anda dan alamat email yang anda cantumkan juga harus benar ( aktif/valid )
karena konfirmasi tentang pendaftaran anda dikirim melalui email. Anda harus membuka
email untuk mengaktifkan pendaftaran anda dengan memasukkan password yang telah dikirim
ke email anda atau klik link aktivasi.
LANGKAH KEDUA: untuk membuat affiliasi ,dimana inilah sumber dollarnya,
Daftarlah menjadi Affiliate Friend Finder , keluarlah dulu dari situs Friendfinder ,
dengan klik log out
Kemudian pilih menu Affiliate Signup (posisi menu ada di atas/bawah halaman)
Isi Form Affiliate FriendFinder (berbeda dengan form FriendFinder).
Isilah data-data anda dg benar.
> Preferred Program: Pilihlah no 1
> First Name: Nama pertama Anda
> Last Name: Nama akhir Anda
> URL: Website/blog Anda, wajib Anda isi, jika Anda belum punya isi saja dengan
alamat blog ANDA.
> Desired Password : Password yg Anda inginkan
> Preferred Newsletter Language: English
> Email Address: Masukkan email Anda
> Secondary Email Address: Email Anda yg lain, boleh juga dikosongkan
> Checks Payable To: Nama lengkap Anda sesuai KTP
> Street Address: Alamat Anda sesuai KTP
> City: Kota tempat tinggal Anda
> State/Province: Provinsi tempat Anda tinggal
> Country: Negara Anda
> ZIP/Postal Code: Kode Pos kota Anda
> What is your business tax classification? Kosongkan saja karena untuk warga Amerika saja
> Tax ID or Social Security Number: Kosongkan saja karena untuk warga Amerika saja
> Phone Number: No telp Anda,
misalnya no telp Anda: 021 1234567 maka buat 6221 1234567 atau no hp
Anda 081xxxxx maka buat 6281xxxxx.( harus pakai kode 62, yaitu kode telphone Indonesia)
> Which Instant Messenger do you use? Pilih saja None
> Use ePassporte : Pilih saja No
> Please give us your comments: Buatlah komentar Anda misalnya: Heloo. I like it. Thank You,
> Setelah itu klik Click Here for the Last Step
> Lalu klik kotak kecil yg ada tulisan
Yes, I have read and accepted the Affiliate Agreement, ........
> Lalu klik Submit.
> Setelah itu klik Account Information
> Lalu klik yg warna biru di tulisan Here is your account information.
Click here to update your information.
Selanjutnya kliklah pada bagian " Payoneer: Signup to be paid by Prepaid MasterCard®.
You will be directed to a FriendFinder page hosted by Payoneer, where you can sign up for a card.
" maka anda akan dibawa ke situs Payoneer Mastercard.
Hebatnya program ini adalah anda langsung mendapatkan Payoneer Debit MasterCard yang akan dikirim
ke rumah anda via POS walaupun saldo account anda masih nol/kosong karena anda baru saja bergabung (member baru ).
Pada tahap ini , kembalilah ke halaman affiliate friendfinder Untuk mengubah pembayaran dari cek ke Payoneer Card.
Pilih menu Account Information dan Klik here to update (posisi di atas halaman)
Selesai.
Dan tunggulah kira-kira 20 hari kartu Anda sampai di rumah Anda,
setelah kartu debit Anda sampai lalu aktivasilah ikuti petunjuk
yg ada disurat yg dikirim bersama dg kartu Anda.Nah gampangkan..
Hanya dg menjadi member FrindFinder Anda bisa dapat kartu
debit dari payoneer, kalau Anda langsung daftar di payoner Anda tidak bisa
mendapatkannya karena country untuk Indonesia tidak ada.
Lihatlah kembali email Anda, disana Anda akan diberikan username dan password untuk affiliate.
Login sebagai member dg login sebagai affiliate itu beda.
Dengan gabung di affiliate FriendFinder Anda juga sudah gabung dg situs turunan FriendFinder,
banyak sekali ternyata, ada adultfrindfinder dll, memang situs ini berbau porno tapi kita hanya
mengambil manfaatnya saja. Saya tidak mengajak Anda untuk berporno ria, tapi hanya mengambil
manfaatnya saja, yaitu kartu debit dan dolarnya.OK?
Buat para cewek/cowok yang pengen tantangan yg ada didunia MAYA bersama Aku,
klik-register-ngisi formulir ( santai aja, GRATIS KOK! )
Dan lagi-lagi bisa DAPETIN duit. COBA aja?!
www.adultfriendfinder.com
Saldo Debit Master Card yang kosong/nol akan menjadi Ladang Usaha Online
anda dengan cara mengisi Kartu Debit tersebut dengan dollar.Hal ini sesuai
dengan option 1 yang anda pilih ,yaitu dengan mencari referral.
Alamat website diblog ini GRATIS pendaftaran, asyiknya lagi?! bisa menghasilkan,
tinggal klik trus ngisi formulir:
www.alt.com
Mencari referral atau tidak,yang penting kartu debit sudah ditangan anda,
hanya saja jika anda tidak mencari referral maka saldo anda akan tetap nol dan
jika mencari referral anda akan mendapatkan 2$ untuk setiap wanita yang bergabung
dan 1$ untuk setiap pria yang bergabung (sesuai Option 1).
Ajang cari JODOH dan juga perkenalan dan lagi-lagi register gratis dapet duit:
www.asiafriendfinder.com
Sangat mudah mencari referral karena program ini 100% GRATIS dan sama sekali
tidak ada embel-embel biaya apapun dibelakang.
Cara yang lebih bagus adalah dengan mempromosikan program ini secara wajar,
yaitu dengan pasang iklan baris,kirim-kirim email,ikut millis grup,forum diskusi.dll.
Anda tidak perlu meragukan program ini ( Payoneer Debit MasterCard ),karena program ini
adalah hanya salah satu dari beberapa program affiliasi milik: friendfinder.com
FriendFinder Tersebar diberbagai negara dan merupakan saingan dari www.friendster.com.
Saya sudah menjelaskan program ini secara gamblang,sekarang sudah saatnya anda bergabung ..!!
Isilah DebitMasterCard anda dengan dollar dengan cara mengajak orang lain untuk bergabung.
Dapatkan 2 dollar untuk setiap wanita yang bergabung,dan 1 dollar untuk setiap pria yang bergabung,
selanjutnya nikmati dollar anda dalam bentuk rupiah dan tarik tunai
di ATM yang berlogo MasterCard diseluruh Indonesia.
100% Gratis !!
Alamat ini bisa register secara gratis dan dapet duit cuma klik trus ngisi formulir:
www.amigos.com
Pengen berhubungan langsung sama temen atau cari temen, bisa online Lho'..
klik aja di:
www.webcams.com
CARA KE 2: ( INI BERBAYAR TETAPI CEPAT )
Bagi anda yang baru pertama kali mendaftar di PayPal pasti status PayPal anda adalah Unverified. Ini berarti bahwa keanggotaan anda di PayPal masih belum di akui belum terverifikasi .
Jika account anda masih dalam status Unverified maka jumlah transaksi anda akan dibatasi dan tidak bisa di cairkan ke Bank Lokal di Indonesia serta tidak bisa di gunakan untuk berbelanja di toko online karena status paypal anda harus Verified .
Anda tidak perlu takut karena ada cara lain untuk Mengubah Status Paypal Unverified Menjadi Verified . Untuk V erifikasi PayPal tidak perlu kartu kredit , artinya bagi anda yang tidak punya kartu kredit masih bisa Verifikasi PayPal. atau
Mengapa PayPal Anda Harus Di Verifikasi ???
* Dengan Status Verified, jumlah transaksi anda tidak dibatasi.
* Bisa di cairkan ke Bank yang ada di Indonesia.
* Bisa di gunakan untuk berbelanja di mercant online dimanapun
Cara Verifikasi PayPal Tanpa Kartu Kredit
Adapun cara untuk Verifikasi PayPal tanpa Kartu Kredit adalah dengan menggunakan VCC. VCC adalah Virtual Credit Card atau Kartu Kredit di dunia maya. VCC ini legal dan sudah di setujui oleh PayPal sendiri untuk Verifikasi Paypal. Jadi anda tidak perlu kuatir.
VCC ini bisa anda dapatkan di website http://www.jualvcc.net . Anda bisa mendapatkan VCC dengan harga sebesar Rp. 75.000 . Menurut saya ini harga yang cukup murah karena di tempat lain harganya rata-rata di atas Rp. 100.000.
Di sana anda akan di pandu oleh mbak Palupi Dewi untuk verifikasi PayPal anda dengan menggunakan VCC. Verifikasi di lakukan kurang lebih hanya dalam waktu 5 menit saja. Setelah verifikasi selesai account PayPal anda akan terisi uang dollar sebesar $1.95 (sekitar Rp. 20.000). Jadi harga VCC sebenarnya hanya Rp. 55.000 saja.
super komputer
super komputer adalah sebuah komputer yang memimpin di dunia dalam kapasitas proses, terutama kecepatan penghitungan, pada awal perkenalannya. Superkomputer diperkenalkan pada tahun 1960-an, didesain oleh Seymour Cray di Control Data Corporation (CDC), memimpin di pasaran pada tahun 1970an sampai Cray berhenti untuk membentuk perusahaanya sendiri, Cray Research.
Dia kemudian mengambil pasaran superkomputer dengan desainnya, dalam keseluruhan menjadi pemimpin superkomputer selama 25 tahun (1965-1990). Pada tahun 1980an beberapa pesaing kecil memasuki pasar, yang bersamaan dengan penciptaan komputer mini dalam dekade sebelumnya. Sekarang ini, pasar superkomputer dipegang oleh IBM dan HP, meskipun Cray Inc. masih menspesialisasikan dalam pembuatan superkomputer.
Penggunaan
Superkomputer digunakan untuk tugas penghitungan-intensif seperti prakiraan cuaca, riset iklim (termasuk riset pemanasan global, pemodelan molekul, simulasi fisik (seperti simulasi kapal terbang dalam terowongan angin, simulasi peledakan senjata nuklir, dan riset fusi nuklir), analisikrip, dll. Militer dan agensi sains salah satu pengguna utama superkomputer.
Desain
Superkomputer biasanya unggul dalam kecepataan dari komputer biasa dengan menggunakan desain inovatif yang membuat mereka dapat melakukan banyak tugas secara paralel, dan juga detail sipil yang rumit. Komputer ini biasanya menspesialisasikan untuk penghitungn tertentu, biasanya penghitungan angka, dan dalam tugas umumnya tidak bagus hasilnya. Hirarki memorinya didesain secara hati-hati untuk memastikan prosesornya tetap menerima data dan instruksi setiap saat; dalam kenyataan, perbedaan performa dengan komputer biasa terletak di hirarki memori dan komponennya. Sistem I/Onya juga didesain supaya bisa mendukung bandwidth yang tinggi.
Seperti dengan sistem paralel pada umumnya, hukum Amdahl berlaku, dan superkomputer didesain untuk menghilangkan serialisasi software, dan menggunakan hardware untuk mempercepat leher botol.
Superkomputer tercepat
* 25 Maret 2005 - Bluegene/L yang dibuat oleh IBM yang berada di Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Amerika Serikat mempunyai 32.768 buah prosesor mampu mencapai kecepatan komputasi 135,5 TFlops.
* 27 Oktober 2005 - Bluegene/L telah mencapai kecepatan komputasi 280,6 TFlops.
* 27 Oktober 2005 - Bluegene/L mencapai kecepatan komputasi 280,6 TFlops.
* Juni 2008 - IBM Roadrunner mencapai kecepatan 1,026 petaflop
Per November 2005, 61% dari 500 superkomputer tercepat berada di Amerika Serikat disusul oleh Britania Raya (8,2%), Jerman (4,8%), Jepang (4,2%), Republik Rakyat Cina (3,4%), Australia (2,2%), Israel (1,8%), Prancis (1,6%), Korea Selatan (1,4%), Italia (1,2%) dan Kanada (1,2%).
43,8% dari 500 superkomputer tercepat tersebut dibuat oleh IBM diikuti oleh Hewlett-Packard (33,8%), Cray (3,6%), SGI (3,6%), Dell (3,4%), Linux Network (3,2%), NEC (1,2%), Atipa Technology (1%), buatan sendiri (1%) dan Hitachi (1%).
Raksasa prosesor dunia Intel masih memimpin dengan prosesor Intel IA-32 yang dipakai 41,2% dari 500 superkomputer tercepat tersebut diikuti oleh Intel EM64T (16,2%), Power (14,6%), AMD x86-64 (11%), Intel IA-64 (9,2%), PA-RISC (3,4%) dan Cray (1,6%).
Sebanyak 72,2% dari 500 superkomputer tersebut menggunakan sistem operasi Linux, selebihnya menggunakan AIX (8,8%), HP-UNIX (6,2%), CNK/Linux (3,6%), UNICOS (2,8%), MacOS X (1%) dan SuSE Linux 9 (1%).
Super komputer dalam teknologi disebut HECToR
Teknologi sudah menjadi sesuatu yang terbesar di duinia. Komputer-komputer super adalah pengiriman pengetahuan terbaik saat
ini, satu yang paling populer disebut HECToR. Komputer yang disebut HECToR dapat membantu menjawab beberapa pertanyaan terbesar dalam pengetahuan. HECToR adalah salah satu negara komputer tercepat dan salah satu yang paling berkuasa di Eropa. Hal itu akan memungkinkan kami melakukan penelitian bahwa tidak bisa menggunakan cara lain dengan mudah. Penelitian didasarkan pada kekuatannya untuk mempelajari arus samudra HECToR yang memungkinkan untuk membangun bagian-bagian kecil dalam memajukan penggabungan komputerHECToR untuk membuat pesawat perang yang lebih tidak terlihat oleh radar. Proyek-proyek lainnya termasuk penelitian superkonduktor, mesin pembakar, dan material-material baru. Pada saat ini ilmuwan sangat tertarik pada super komputer yang compatibel karena mereka tahu itu; ilmuwan bekerja di lapangan berinterval dari kosmologi dan fisika atom ke simulasi bencana dan peduli kesehatan akan juga memakai komputer. Mesin ini adalah salah satu penemuan yang paling dan terbesar saat ini, beberapa ilmuwan berkata"inilah teknologi yang kami cari" mesin ini yang berdiri atas nama HECToR yang berarti High-End-Computing-terascale-Resource. Super komputer ini dibuat di USA dan pemimpin pabriknya berada dalam salah satu perusahaan yang bertanggung jawab yang disebut Cray.Inc. Mereka puas dengan salh satu potensi ilmu pengetahuan. HECToR.CRAY>INC di publikasi tahun ini, dan digunakan untuk mempelajari hal terpenting dalm pemerintahan dalam bidang senjata nuklir tanpa perlu pengujian bawah tanah. Teknologi berkembang sangat cepat dan super-komputer akan segera selesai, bukan sejauh ini yang terbesar di dunia.
Adakah komputer yang pengolahan prosesnya super cepat dan tidak pernah terpikirkan sebelumnya? Jelas ada! Superkomputer adalah jawabannya.
Apakah superkomputer itu? Mengutip dari Wikipedia, definisi superkomputer adalah teknologi mesin komputer yang di desain khusus untuk kapasitas proses super cepat, terutama dalam kecepatan kalkulasi dan pengolahan data besar. Lalu, siapa saja produsen superkomputer? Digunakan untuk kebutuhan apa? Apa bedanya dengan server biasa? Semua akan diulas di sini.
Roadrunner, salah satu produk superkomputer buatan IBM menduduki tempat teratas dalam daftar Top 500 superkomputer tercepat dunia. Kecepatannya mencapai 1,1 Petaflops, artinya mampu mengerjakan 1,1 Kuadriliun operasi komputasi per detik. Sementara itu, Jaguar, superkomputer buatan Cray, menempel ketat di belakang Roadrunner dengan 1,06 Petaflops per detik. Bahkan, tidak lama lagi pendatang baru dari IBM, Sequoia siap menyaingi keduanya.
Diharapkan, tahun 2011 IBM menyelesaikan Sequoia yang memiliki performa 20 kali lebih “super” dibanding Roadrunner atau lebih besar daripada 400.000 prosesor dengan CPU 3 GHz quadcore. Berapa besar 20 Petaflops ini? IBM menganalogikannya “kalkulasi yang dihitung Sequoia selama satu hari, membutuhkan 1000 tahun dan 6 milyar orang untuk menghitungnya dengan kalkulator”.
Superkomputer untuk ramalan cuaca
Solusi pengaturan data inilah yang kini sedang diteliti oleh para pengembang software IBM di Rochester, Minnesota. Namun, mereka tidak mengkoordinasi pekerjaan 300.000 prosesor seperti pada superkomputer Jugene, melainkan menambahkan lebih banyak chip untuk kelancaran arus data.
Superkomputer Sequoia akan menggunakan 1,6 juta prosesor dan 1,6 Petabyte RAM. Semua itu akan ditempatkan pada 96 rak di dalam ruang seluas 340 meter persegi. Superkomputer ini akan mencapai 20 Petaflops. Superkomputer ini diproyeksikan untuk kebutuhan simulasi penuaan senjata nuklir.
Super komputer
Teknologi sudah menjadi sesuatu yang terbesar di duinia. Komputer-komputer super adalah pengiriman pengetahuan terbaik saat ini, satu yang paling populer disebut HECToR. Komputer yang disebut HECToR dapat membantu menjawab beberapa pertanyaan terbesar dalam pengetahuan. HECToR adalah salah satu negara komputer tercepat dan salah satu yang paling berkuasa di Eropa. Hal itu akan memungkinkan kami melakukan penelitian bahwa tidak bisa menggunakan cara lain dengan mudah. Penelitian didasarkan pada kekuatannya untuk mempelajari arus samudra HECToR yang memungkinkan untuk membangun bagian-bagian kecil dalam memajukan penggabungan komputerHECToR untuk membuat pesawat perang yang lebih tidak terlihat oleh radar. Proyek-proyek lainnya termasuk penelitian superkonduktor, mesin pembakar, dan material-material baru. Pada saat ini ilmuwan sangat tertarik pada super komputer yang compatibel karena mereka tahu itu; ilmuwan bekerja di lapangan berinterval dari kosmologi dan fisika atom ke simulasi bencana dan peduli kesehatan akan juga memakai komputer. Mesin ini adalah salah satu penemuan yang paling dan terbesar saat ini, beberapa ilmuwan berkata"inilah teknologi yang kami cari" mesin ini yang berdiri atas nama HECToR yang berarti High-End-Computing-terascale-Resource. Super komputer ini dibuat di USA dan pemimpin pabriknya berada dalam salah satu perusahaan yang bertanggung jawab yang disebut Cray.Inc. Mereka puas dengan salh satu potensi ilmu pengetahuan. HECToR.CRAY>INC di publikasi tahun ini, dan digunakan untuk mempelajari hal terpenting dalm pemerintahan dalam bidang senjata nuklir tanpa perlu pengujian bawah tanah. Teknologi berkembang sangat cepat dan super-komputer akan segera selesai, bukan sejauh ini yang terbesar di dunia.
Love
Love is any of a number of emotions related to a sense of strong affection[1] and attachment. The word love can refer to a variety of different feelings, states, and attitudes, ranging from generic pleasure ("I loved that meal") to intense interpersonal attraction ("I love my wife"). This diversity of uses and meanings, combined with the complexity of the feelings involved, makes love unusually difficult to consistently define, even compared to other emotional states.
As an abstract concept, love usually refers to a deep, ineffable feeling of tenderly caring for another person. Even this limited conception of love, however, encompasses a wealth of different feelings, from the passionate desire and intimacy of romantic love to the nonsexual emotional closeness of familial and platonic love[2] to the profound oneness or devotion of religious love.[3] Love in its various forms acts as a major facilitator of interpersonal relationships and, owing to its central psychological importance, is one of the most common themes in the creative arts.
The word "love" can have a variety of related but distinct meanings in different contexts. Often, other languages use multiple words to express some of the different concepts that English relies mainly on "love" to encapsulate; one example is the plurality of Greek words for "love." Cultural differences in conceptualizing love thus make it doubly difficult to establish any universal definition.[4]
Although the nature or essence of love is a subject of frequent debate, different aspects of the word can be clarified by determining what isn't love. As a general expression of positive sentiment (a stronger form of like), love is commonly contrasted with hate (or neutral apathy); as a less sexual and more emotionally intimate form of romantic attachment, love is commonly contrasted with lust; and as an interpersonal relationship with romantic overtones, love is commonly contrasted with friendship, although other definitions of the word love may be applied to close friendships in certain contexts.When discussed in the abstract, love usually refers to interpersonal love, an experience felt by a person for another person. Love often involves caring for or identifying with a person or thing, including oneself (cf. narcissism). In addition to cross-cultural differences in understanding love, ideas about love have also changed greatly over time. Some historians date modern conceptions of romantic love to courtly Europe during or after the Middle Ages, although the prior existence of romantic attachments is attested by ancient love poetry.[5]
Two hands forming the outline of a heart shape.
Because of the complex and abstract nature of love, discourse on love is commonly reduced to a thought-terminating cliché, and there are a number of common proverbs regarding love, from Virgil's "Love conquers all" to the Beatles' "All you need is love." St. Thomas Aquinas, following Aristotle, defines love as "to will the good of another."[6] Bertrand Russell describes love as a condition of "absolute value," as opposed to relative value. Philosopher Gottfried Leibniz said that love is "to be delighted by the happiness of another."[7]
Love is sometimes referred to as being the "international language", overriding cultural and linguistic divisions.
Chemical basis
Biological models of sex tend to view love as a mammalian drive, much like hunger or thirst.[9] Helen Fisher, a leading expert in the topic of love, divides the experience of love into three partly overlapping stages: lust, attraction, and attachment. Lust exposes people to others; romantic attraction encourages people to focus their energy on mating; and attachment involves tolerating the spouse (or indeed the child) long enough to rear a child into infancy.
Simplified overview of the chemical basis of love.
Lust is the initial passionate sexual desire that promotes mating, and involves the increased release of chemicals such as testosterone and estrogen. These effects rarely last more than a few weeks or months. Attraction is the more individualized and romantic desire for a specific candidate for mating, which develops out of lust as commitment to an individual mate forms. Recent studies in neuroscience have indicated that as people fall in love, the brain consistently releases a certain set of chemicals, including pheromones, dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin, which act in a manner similar to amphetamines, stimulating the brain's pleasure center and leading to side effects such as increased heart rate, loss of appetite and sleep, and an intense feeling of excitement. Research has indicated that this stage generally lasts from one and a half to three years.[10]
Since the lust and attraction stages are both considered temporary, a third stage is needed to account for long-term relationships. Attachment is the bonding that promotes relationships lasting for many years and even decades. Attachment is generally based on commitments such as marriage and children, or on mutual friendship based on things like shared interests. It has been linked to higher levels of the chemicals oxytocin and vasopressin to a greater degree than short-term relationships have.[10] Enzo Emanuele and coworkers reported the protein molecule known as the nerve growth factor (NGF) has high levels when people first fall in love, but these return to previous levels after one year.[11]
How to Help Save the Environment
Things like hectic climate change, polluted air, acid rain, depletion of the ozone layer, global warming, and an increase in poverty prove that the way we use things is ineffective.
Imagine this. One day you come out from your house and all you see is big puffs of black smoke and no trees! All you hear are cars and no birds! All you smell is gasoline and no flowers! What kind of life is that?
All we need to do to reduce the problem is simply to be less wasteful. Here are some ideas on how to help everyone!
Save it now while you still can.
Steps
1
Switch off anything that uses electricity. Stick to a routine of shutting off as many electrical appliances as possible when you leave a room. If it will be at least 36 hours before you use it again, unplug it. Even when an appliance is off, it may still use power. Just imagine. You will save hundreds of dollars and you could donate the money to a charity in need or buy yourself something nice.
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* Power strips are convenient devices. You can plug all your appliances in one area - say, your computer, fax, printer, and modem; or your toaster, blender, and coffee maker - into a power strip. Then when you're done using all appliances, simply turn the power strip switch from "reset" to "off".
* It is important to note that cell phone and laptop chargers, as well as some other plug-in devices, continue to drain energy from your electrical circuit, even when the item being charged or utilized is no longer connected. Unplug the chargers altogether or use a power strip.
2
Use renewable energy sources. In the USA around 71% of electricity is produced by burning fossil fuels. Burning coal or other fuels emits green-house gases and pollution in the environment. An average home powered by a coal utility will burn 12,000 pounds of coal a year and will cause about the same amount of pollution as 2 cars. By using renewable energy as the primary power source, the reduction of pollution per household would be equivalent to that of planting 400 trees. Many electric companies offer power from renewable sources (sometimes at a slightly higher fee). Another option is to rent solar panels, as these are becoming increasingly less expensive. Contact your local energy provider for more information.
3
Encourage your congressional representatives to support environmental issues and renewable energy
4
Check your faucets and any other appliance that uses water straight from your source. If your faucets drip, get them fixed, or at least put a container under the drip in the meantime and use the water. To check your toilets, put a few drops of food coloring (go for a strong color) in the tank, not the bowl. Wait about ten minutes without flushing. If you see the dye in the bowl, repair your toilet.
One drop per minute can add up over time.
5
Turn off the water when you're not using it. As Ellen Degeneres says, "Turn off the water while brushing your teeth." Why is the water running for so long? There is no point, is there? It is okay if you forget a few times, but if you forget a lot, put a little sticky note on the wall in front of the sink, with the reminder, "Turn off the faucet. Don't waste water!" This goes for shaving, washing dishes, and even taking a shower.
6.
6
Avoid salt-based water softeners. These require excessive amounts of energy and water, and leave your local watershed's water quality impaired by excess salts. If you have hard water, use an electronic descaling device instead, such as Scalewatcher or Small Wonder.
7
Use rechargeable batteries instead of disposable batteries. Batteries not only take up landfill space (they can't be incinerated), they can leak acid into the Earth. Even then, only use the appliance when you must. If you have the choice, plug in the device instead of using batteries.
8
Install low-flow toilets in your home, or put a brick in the reservoir (the back) of your current toilet. The space the brick takes up in the bottom of the tank will permit you to use less water, but keep the toilet functioning. Also try adjusting the water level down. Many toilets have an adjustment to lower the valve float.
9
Use only as much toilet paper as you need, and don't use a mile of it for one little wiping. Be reasonable. Go easy on the paper towels, too. More importantly, to protect virgin forest from being cut down unnecessarily, use paper products made from 80-100% recycled paper, preferably with a high post consumer content.
Be Reasonable, and care about the earth!
10
Organize a carpool for work or school. This way, if you take a highway with a High Occupancy Vehicle (HOV) lane, this can usually save time and money on gasoline. For bonus points, use a hybrid or other car that gets high gas mileage.
11
Plan your errands to avoid going around in circles. This will use more gas and waste time. Group outings into fewer, longer trips. This minimizes both trips out and cold starts (starting an engine that has not been run lately). Cold starts are hard on your car and the environment.
12
Invest in a good bicycle and helmet. Use them when your destination is within 5-10 miles of home. You can also buy pannier racks, a bike trailer, or a sturdy basket to hold items. Get in the habit of riding your bike to local areas. Plus, you will get more exercise and feel better!
Your low-cost, low-emissions vehicle.
13
Avoid using disposable items as much as possible. Anything you use only a few times and throw away consumes resources only to spend centuries in a landfill.
* You can do this by carrying your own reusable mug, eating utensils, and cloth shopping bags with you. Keep them in your car or bike panniers.
14
Avoid using plastic whenever you can; it is a poison of the earth (things like disposable plastic cups, plastic bags, nonsense plastic items you don't need). It never breaks down, and has led to the poisoning and death of numerous sea creatures. Look into ways that plastic can be recycled in your area. Some cities have programs for recycling plastic bags and other difficult to recycle types of plastic.
* Use resealable, reusable containers instead of plastic wrap or plastic bags.
15
Get a hybrid. If you have been looking for a new vehicle, hybrids are becoming more and more popular. There are a wide variety of hybrids on the market from little sedans to big SUVs. They not only give off less emissions into the air, they can save you money with fewer trips to the gas station.
16
Consider cloth diapers. They've come a long way from the things with pins and plastic covers that gen x-ers and ALL previous generations wore. You will save a fortune (especially if you have more than one child), keep potentially dangerous chemicals away from your baby's bottom, and do a good thing for the planet while you're at it!
17
Use reusable cloth pads, or a menstrual cup. It may sound gross to reuse these kinds of things, but imagine all the pads and tampons you use in your lifetime all piled up. Can you say "EW"?
* If for some reason these are not options for you, consider using tampons and pads made of unbleached, organic cotton, and tampons without plastic applicators. These are better for your health as well as the planet.
18
Trade in your dryer for a good old fashioned clothesline. It makes your clothes smell nice and fresh, and, it's environmentally friendly! If you do use a dryer, make sure to keep the vent clear.
19
Switch to compact florescent light bulbs. While these cost more, they are also longer lasting than conventional light bulbs, and they use only one-quarter of the energy. They may cost more money, but last much longer.
These new light bulbs look like this.
20
Coordinate with your neighbors and friends. If the local recycling depot is at some distance, make a single drop-off spot in your neighborhood, where people can bring their recyclables, then use just one car to drive them to the depot. A garage is a good place to store things until they are taken. You might have different neighbors responsible for different kinds of recyclables, such as paper, glass, metal, etc.
21
Conserve water. Take shorter showers or fill the bathtub only 1/4-1/3 full. Run your dishwasher only when it is completely full. Reuse water, if at all possible by boiling it. If you wash your own car, park it on your lawn and use buckets and sponges. Use the hose to rinse. Use pool covers to reduce evaporation and keep leaves out. Try installing eco-friendly faucets, such as Grohe faucets which are equipped with low-flow fittings to reduce wasteful water consumption.
22
Compost. Designate an area in your yard to put your yard waste, fruit peels, and uneaten food. Find some worms who can break the waste down and produce a very rich soil that works great with your landscaping. Keep your compost heap as far from a water source as possible, and if you can, put a couple layers of concrete blocks or bricks around your heap to avoid a mess on your lawn.
It may look yucky, but it's a whole lot better than gasoline!
23
Buy secondhand clothes, or if you have a neighbor with a child a year or so older than your child, ask if they can send their old clothes to you. You can also find many 'organic clothes' at common department stores. These clothes are made with organic cotton in a more environmentally friendly factories. They are in style nowadays.
24
Stop Some of Your Junk Mail. If you get several catalogs which you do not need, then call one company each day or each week and ask for them to stop sending this to you. This will save trees, and will use less oil, as something you do not need will not have to be made and transported to you. There is sometimes more paper in the local newspaper that you would use in 2 months. Remember to recycle the old newspapers, or the ones that you do not need anymore.
25
Get skylights. These windows go on your ceiling to provide more light, reducing the electric light you use. Some types can even transfer sunlight into electricity.
You can get a nice view of the clouds, too!
26
Join your local chapter of www.freecycle.org. These groups offer unwanted or unneeded household "stuff" for free to each other, usually through a Yahoo! Group. Keep your unwanted "stuff" out of the landfill and in the hands of someone who will actually USE it. You will make someone happy, and the earth happier too! Craigslist.org is another useful resource for buying, selling, and giving away used items locally.
27
Don't use pesticides, herbicides, or chemicals. Pesticides kill hundreds of birds and other animals per year. If you have unwanted weeds, pull or hoe them out yourself, clip them down, plant a ground cover in their place, or use mulch to control weeds and limit evaporation.
* If you are a gardener, check out permaculture, integrative pest management, polycropping, and other techniques that reduce or eliminate the need for chemical inputs.
28
Reuse glass bottles. Buy a glass bottle and use it for a long time! It will not rot or go bad like a plastic bottle will. You could decrease the amount of water bottles in the garbage dumps if you use 1 glass bottle instead of 30 plastic water bottles per week. Glass bottles are also healthy! Plastic is not. All different types of chemicals get released into your water from the plastic, and even more if you squeeze it!
29
Turn useless junk into something fun and cute, or fresh and funky! Jewelery! You can take a look around wikiHow and find tons of articles about how to make different things.
30
Stop reading newspapers if you can look up the news on your computer, it takes up less energy than cutting down the trees, making the paper, and transporting it to your house.
31
Brew tea using bulk leaves rather than disposable tea bags. You can buy teas of all sorts in bulk, more affordably than buying boxes of tea bags. Then brew using a mesh strainer, filter, teapot, carafe, or french press.
32
Buy or make a few reusable fabric bags, and bring them with you whenever you go shopping. Or, reuse your old plastic bags. Just imagine all of the plastic bags in the world added up. Isn't that a lot of garbage?
33
Recycle old plastic bags. There are a lot of things which you can do with old plastic bags. Don't throw them away! They will come in handy! You can reuse them when shopping. Check out how to recycle old plastic bags.
34
Ask for any leftover meat when you go to your meat shop. If the meat is OK to feed to dogs, feed that to your dog instead. Maybe even your cat! They may even give it to you for free. You will also save money by not having to buy dog/cat food. Also, at some super markets, they also give dog bones free with any purchase.
35
Reuse clothing, and find something snazzy to do with it. You can reinvent wearable pieces or donate them to charity. You could use an old t-shirt as housekeeping rags, make mop tie out of them, or sew patches onto things. Be creative! Did you know you can make construction paper out of denim jeans?!
36
Start a neighborhood clean-up that will clean up the neighborhood, every week or so. Get the whole neighborhood involved! Try and get the community involved with the projects, and even do a public park clean up - this is everyone's home.
37
Recycle all you can. In many countries, recycling is taken seriously. They have one trash can for bags, one for glass, one for cans, one for boxes, one for plastic, one for paper, even one for decomposed food. Try disciplining yourself to recycling the necessities we use when done.
38
Put timers on lamps that will turn off lamps at the same time on a daily basis. Timers like these can be found in hardware stores and they can be plugged into your lamp.
39
Buy less stuff. If you don't need it, don't buy it. Besides saving money and not cluttering up your house, not buying things in the first place means never using the resources (materials, energy, labor) necessary to create it. Could you borrow something, get it used, or simply do without it?
40
Close doors after you leave a room. When you leave the house, or even when you have dinner downstairs, try to close the door to all the rooms you don't normally use or need. Doing this often will save a lot of excess heating that is needed to make your home warm. Something simple anyone can do:)
41
Limit your shower water. Use less water when showering and don't take longer than fifteen minutes. There are also devices there days that can limit the amount of heated water used per shower, such as Grohe faucets, equipped with low-flow fittings.
42
Don't use too much fertilizer. Do you know what happens to all the fertilizer that is washed off lawns and gardens? Some way or another, it ends up in a body of water. Stop this indirect pollution! Organic fertilizer is better than chemical fertilizer. So next time you buy fertilizer, buy organic or even make your own!
43
Don't use electronic exercise machines. Instead of using treadmills and similar, use a bicycle or a unicycle maybe. Walking and push-ups work as well.
44
Plant a tree in your neighborhood or near your home; They suck up harmful CO2 gases. If you can't plant one, try potted plants.
45.
45
When you're not too dirty, plug up the shower and use the remaining water to clean your dog.
46
Crank it up! At many electronic stores, they sell flashlights or radios powered by cranks. They're a tad expensive, but they'll soon pay for themselves, as they don't need batteries!
47
Turn it off Buy a power strip, and plug your TV, computer, lights, etc. into it. At night, when you're not using them, turn off the power strip, because even an appliance that is off sucks up energy if there's nothing stopping it. Not only does it save electricity, it shaves money off your electric bill.
48
Use Canvas To Conserve. Using canvas bags help the environment because plastic bags take hundreds of years to disintegrate. Also,using canvas bags is a very cheap way to help out planet.
49
Create a frog pond in your backyard. Frog populations are dwindling, If you create a habitat for them in your backyard, they may breed there, which will help because their breeding areas are disappearing.
50
Eat less meat. The production of meat is one of the most significant contributors to the most serious environmental problems, including global climate change. Meat production is highly resource intensive and inefficient. Meatless Monday is a national non-profit public health campaign that encourages people to give up meat one day a week. Attempting vegetarianism or veganism is definitely one of the best things you can do for the environment and also for your health. Check out the site for some meatless recipes. Fact: Eliminating meat from your diet completely is not good for your health. Once a week won't hurt, but if you don't eat meat, you won't get the proteins that you need that vegatables can't give you.
51
Never eat fast food. Many fast food restaurants have grazing lands for beef cattle where rain forest used to be. Not only does eating from these places cut down the rain forest, it uses CO2 to ship the cows, or whats left of them, up in to wherever the restaurant is.
52.
52
Load up that washing machine If you need to do laundry, try to wash as much clothes as possible in it. It saves water, electricity, and time to wash those clothes.
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Tips
* Try organic fresh fruits and vegetables. Generally things with the fewest ingredients on the label are the safest bet.
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* If you can't ride a bike or don't own one, try to walk to places as much as possible, but if you need transportation, see if you can use mass transit (like a train, bus, or subway). Since more people use them (so less people are using cars), less fossil fuels are being released.
* Generally, don't waste anything (this does not mean eating every left-over you find; you can pack it in containers and put it in the refrigerator or freezer). If you know of some poor people, they could appreciate this a lot and look up to you for it. Help your neighbors! And, if you are sure you don't want it anymore or that your fridge/freezer is full, try putting it outside of your house, or somewhere close to starving animals. They would be more than happy to gobble it up. For example, bread from your breakfast that you just can't eat anymore - break it down and leave it outside for the birds.
* Although recycling is great, it's even better to conserve. That means reusing paper as much as possible, or refilling your water bottle instead of buying a new one, and so on.
* If you are just getting a soda, or something else that does not require a bag (or if you're just not going to use it), don't take one. Otherwise, use scrap fabric to sew a 'Bag Bunny' to hold plastic bags to be reused.
* When grocery shopping, bring your own bag(s) (cloth ones are the best kind). Some places even give slight discounts for you bringing in your own bag. Some shops also make you pay for those plastic bags, so you'll be saving money as well as do good deeds!
* The next time you order a beverage, bring your own mug (or buy one of theirs). Not only will you save 15 cents, but you will also help by not wasting cups.
* Spread the word! Start a club at school, a fund raiser, or anything else that would help make people aware of the environment.
* When it comes to saving the planet's water, don't be boring! You're more likely to use something if you like it, so buy a colorful water bottle or decorate your glass bottle with pretty glass paint!
* Ask your local Waste Management Service if you could help out. Maybe you could make fliers and put them around town, to make people aware of the earth. Start a day where you and the town will pick up garbage.
* If possible, drink your tap water! You'll have more cash in your pocket and reduce the chances of a factory creating more unnecessary bottles, meaning less energy as well as resources used up.
* If you don't have time and space for clothes that you no longer need, donate them to charity! Every time you do, you make a lonely soul a grateful spirit, as well as motivate others to do good!
* If you have a Facebook profile add the Greenbook application to it. The longer you're on Facebook, the more carbon dioxide you help to reduce.
* Before you recycle something, like an aluminum can, it's best to wash it out first. Did you know that one aluminum can can be recycled 10 times?
* Before recycling aluminum cans, take off the tabs and save them. There are many hospitals that will accept them and use them to make medical equipment.
Warnings
* Every time you buy something mass-produced that you don't need you make someone poorer. Think it over before you buy it.
* Make sure that any meat that you feed to your animal is OK for them to eat. Don't give them dangerous food that could make them sick.
* Organic food is usually more expensive than "regular food".
Things You'll Need
* Compost holder/place
* Reusable shopping bags
Hacking
Every time a home PC or small home/office network goes online, it connects to thousands of unknown networks and millions of their users. Connecting to Internet provides the opportunities to communicate and share information with others. But it also gives opportunities to Internet users that are involved in malicious activities. Its often believed by many that they don't possess anything that would be of any interest to intruders. But in most of the computer attacks, these computers are used as launching pads to spread viruses, worms and other attacks. They just serve as one link in a chain of multiple compromised systems.
Security concerns of a home network or SOHO are similar to those of big corporate networks. Faster Internet connections are becoming popular and as they are "always on"; the computer networks are becoming more vulnerable to attacks. Possible attacks on SOHO and home networks include a Denial of Service (DOS) attack, a Distributed Denial of Service (DDOS) attack using SOHO networks, accessing and destroying confidential information on the system, etc. The only way to secure a computer from online intruders is to turn it off or by disconnecting it from the Internet. According to the experts, use of firewalls is the best way of securing a computer network from online intrusion. Firewalls are the first line of defense in protecting computers. A firewall filters the network traffic on the basis of certain pre set rules, hence protecting one network from another. However, there are other tools that can be used to protect the networks like antivirus software, anti hacker tools, etc. Protecting personal computers using PC monitoring tools, file protection tools and password security tools further enhances the security mechanism of the small networks.
After reading the last chapter, you might have gone and updated your computer with the appropriate patches and hotfixes.� You might of even given encryption a try on some of your most sensitive materials.� You are even careful to keep your computer locked up, away from those who mean you harm.� There is, however, so much more to securing your computer.� In this chapter, we will look at Internet security.�
There are several issues that arise when talking about Internet security.� In the last chapter, we talked a lot about patches and hotfixes, but in this chapter, I will focus mainly on protecting your computer from hackers.�
Hackers have been around since the dawn of the Internet.� Some hackers are benign, they actually work for computer security companies to find holes in software and provide better ways to protect computers and their owners.� On the other side of this are the hackers who have malicious intents, to steal your hard work, your personal and credit information for their own gain. Hackers are generally a smart crowd, and if you put enough obstacles in their way, they will move on to an easier target.���
Before we get on to that, there is a little background information you should know.� For those of you out there with dial-up, a hacker can only break into your computer while you are dialed in.� That may seem obvious enough, but it is also a way to keep the computer safe. There is only a limited amount of time per day or week, depending on your personal Internet use habits, that a hacker can get into your computer.� A computer with DSL or a broadband connection is always connected to the Internet, so a hacker can come in at any time to steal your information.� Don't get me wrong, it is not that those of you with dial-up need not worry about things such as firewalls, but I want to emphasize how important these steps are, especially to those of you with DSL or broadband Internet connections.
A hacker breaks into a computer by finding out that computer's IP address.� The hacker sends out probes over the Internet looking for live IP addresses, if they find your computer, they look at what kind of security system you have.�� This is another advantage of the dial-up connection.� Every time you leave and come back, your IP address changes, making it harder for the hacker to track you down.� For DSL and cable users, the IP address is always the same, making it very easy for a hacker to spot you and keep an eye on you.� In any case, people often run their computers with multiple applications, like e-mail, web browsers, and maybe a word processing program running on the same IP address.� Each of these applications will have a port that identifies them on the computer.� Hackers get into your computer by finding a port that has been left open due to poor security and using that port to access the rest of your computer.�
People who use dial-up may be thinking that they are bullet proof, that no hacker can get to them, but this is not true.� A hacker can use a "backdoor" or a "Trojan Horse" to find the computer again.� The hacker can install these programs, and, if they are not given enough time to find what they are looking for on your computer, the Trojan Horse will signal back to the hacker so the hacker knows where to look without having to probe IP addresses hoping to find specifically you again.�
Needed Computer Layers of Protection
As you may have already guessed, when it comes to Internet security, it is best to have more than one system of protection in place.� In the wintertime, people layer their clothing to provide better protection against the elements.� In much the same fashion, it is important to have several layers of protection against software.� This is important because computers are only software, man-made mechanisms that are sometime fallible.� Having several layers of protection allows you to safeguard against any holes in any security software.� What follows are a list of layers that any computer should have.� Some of these you will already have, some of them you might have not yet thought of.
1.
Internet Service Provider.� Make sure to choose an ISP that offers anti-virus and Spam filters for your email.
2.
Firewall. This is especially important if you have a cable or DSL modem.� A firewall inspects every packet of information, either trying to go out or trying to come in, to see if that information should pass through.�
3.
Sever the connection.� There are several products, hardware, that will sever your Internet connection automatically when you stop surfing.� This allows the DSL and cable users the same protection that dial-up users get with the convenience and speed of cable and DSL.
4.
Consider switching browsers and e-mail providers. Many security and privacy attacks are aimed at Windows and Microsoft product users.� Switching to Linux or Macintosh can help protect you from attacks.� Most people won't do this, but if you were considering it anyway, think of this as another reason to make the switch.�
5.
Disable printer sharing on your computer.� The connection here may not seem apparent.� This option was intended for local, secure area networks (LAN's).� This option allows others to gain full access to the computer's hard drive.
6.
Never give out passwords via email.� This may seem obvious, but never ever give out a password via e-mail. E-mail can be read too, and, perhaps more dangerously, hackers can send you e-mail from a boss's computer.� If your boss or an IT person needs your password, give them a call or walk down to their office to tell them.�
Hacking and Cracking
In the early years of computers, hacking had a positive connotation in the computing field. Computer wizards and geniuses from MIT and Stanford proudly claimed the hacker title. 'To hack' was to figure out something that a normal programmer could not think. However, the meanings of this term have changed in recent times. Today, hacking is associated with individuals who maliciously invade computer systems without authorization. It can be to get someone's credit card number or to get into somebody's bank accounts or just for the fun of doing so. Crackers and script-kiddies are two other more commonly used terms describing those involved in the break in or disruption of an online service.
Data communication is based on a set of handshakes to ensure the smooth and reliable flow of information. A hacker who is between a client and a server and is able to spoof (illegally duplicate) the IP address and sequence numbers can attack either machine in several ways. The hacker can disable one of the machines and take the identity of the other, or the hacker can mimic either machine and carry on conversations impersonating the other. A hacker could also attach additional information to a client request and strip the corresponding additional response from the packet before forwarding the remaining response to the client's original request. All this is done while having access to information that is assumed to be going back and forth between two 'trusted' systems. All electronic transmissions such as emails, Internet, intranet, etc can theoretically be monitored. Since most computers are part of network(s), spying on data transmissions is a major concern.
Hackers can include both outsiders and insiders and security problems can occur in any networked environment. Many of the problems are related to the exploitation of the original design of the TCP/IP suite of internetworking protocols, but the majority of them are due to configuration or operator errors. Although current losses due to hacker attacks are significantly smaller than losses due to insider theft and sabotage, the hacker problem is widespread and serious. Industrial espionage often involves the use of hacking techniques and can be perpetrated either by companies seeking to improve their competitive advantage or by governments seeking to aid their domestic industries. Foreign industrial espionage carried out by a government is often referred to as economic espionage.
Recent years have seen a rapid growth of the Internet and online transactions. It is estimated that online transactions would reach well over a trillion dollars in the coming years. With such high stakes, it makes sense for all parties involved to secure the Internet. Haphazard handling of financial and personal information can lead to the Internet being constantly associated with fraud and privacy abuses instead of being a viable commerce medium.
Threats and Attacks Defined
Modern computer systems, linked by national and global networks, face a variety of threats and attacks that can result in significant financial and information losses. These threats vary considerably, from threats to data integrity resulting from accidental, unintentional errors and omissions to threats from malicious hackers attempting to crash a system.
Threats can be seen as potential violations of security and exist because of vulnerabilities, i.e. weaknesses, in a system. Computer systems are vulnerable to many threats, which can inflict various types of damage resulting in significant losses. There are two basic types of threats: accidental threats that result in either an exposure of confidential information or cause an illegal system state to occur and attacks that are intentional threats.
Accidental Threats
Accidental threats to security can be generated by system malfunctions, bugs in software or operational mistakes. Users, data entry clerks, system operators, and programmers frequently make unintentional errors, which contribute to security problems, directly and indirectly. Sometimes the error (such as a data entry error or a programming error) results in a system to crash while in other cases, the errors create vulnerabilities. These exposures can emerge from both hardware and software failures as well as from user and operational mistakes, and result in a violation of the confidentiality of the information or resource. For e.g., a threat to security could occur if a confidential or important mail reaches a wrong person unintentionally.
Threats by the ways of errors can occur in all phases of the system life cycle. Programming and development errors, often called bugs, range in severity from benign to catastrophic. Installation and maintenance errors can also cause security problems. These errors and omissions are important threats to data integrity. In the past decade, software quality has improved reducing this threat, yet there are instances when even the most sophisticated programs and software have failed.
Another instance of accidental loss can be the loss of supporting infrastructure that includes power failures, loss of communications, water outages and leaks, sewer problems, fire, flood, civil unrest, strikes, and so forth. These losses include events such as World Trade Center attacks and the Chicago tunnel flood along with other common events such as a broken water pipe. A loss of infrastructure often results in system downtime and loss of information and resources.
Attacks
An attack is an intentional threat and is an action performed by an entity with the intention to violate security. Examples of attacks are destruction, modification, fabrication, interruption or interception of data. An attack is a violation of data integrity and often results in disclosure of information, a violation of the confidentiality of the information, or in modification of the data. An attacker can gain access to sensitive information by attacking in several steps, where each step involves an illegal access to the system. An intentional threat can be caused by an insider or outsider, can be a spy, hacker, corporate raider, or a disgruntled employee.
Any attack on the security of a system can be a direct and indirect attack. A direct attack aims directly at the desired part of the data or resources. Several components in a system may be attacked before the intended (final) information can be accessed. In an indirect attack, information is received from or about the desired data/resource without directly attacking that resource. Indirect attacks are often troublesome in database systems where it is possible to derive confidential information by posing indirect questions to the database. Such an indirect attack is often called inference.
Passive Attacks
Passive attacks are made by monitoring a system performing its tasks and collecting information. In general, it is very hard to detect passive attacks since they do not interact or disturb normal system functions. Monitoring network traffic, CPU and disk usage, etc are examples of passive attacks. Encryption of network traffic can only partly solve the problem since even the presence of traffic on a network may reveal some information. Traffic analysis such as measuring the length, time and frequency of transmissions can be very valuable to detect unusual activities.
Active Attack
An active attack changes the system behavior in some way. Examples of an active attack can be to insert new data, to modify, duplicate or delete existing data in a database, to deliberately abuse system software causing it to fail and to steal magnetic tapes, etc. A simple operation such as the modification of a negative acknowledgment (NACK) from a database server into a positive acknowledgment (ACK) could result in great confusion and/or damage. Active attacks are easier to detect if proper precautions are taken.
Covert Channels
A Covert channel is a simple and an effective mechanism for sending and receiving information data between machines without alerting any firewalls and IDS's on the network. It is an unprotected channel that can be used to send confidential information to unauthorized entities and thereby violate security. In general, it is very hard to identify covert channels in a system since they can be of many different types:
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Message length variations during transmissions
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Time and length of transmissions
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Presence and size of files
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Creation time for objects
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Modulation of disk usage
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CPU time usage, etc.
This technique derives its stealthy nature from the fact that it sends traffic through ports that most firewalls permit through. In addition, it can bypass an IDS by appearing to be an innocuous packet carrying ordinary information (when in fact it is concealing its actual data in one of the several control fields in the TCP and IP headers). Mandatory encryption of communication does not prevent the use of a covert channel by any entity to send information to another entity. Covert channels can further be classified as timing channels and storage channels. Timing channels are those covert channels that modulate a resource in time, while storage channels are those channels where actions like creation of objects reveal information to other entities.
It is very hard to completely eliminate covert channels in a system. A covert channel with a high bandwidth constitutes a higher threat than a covert channel with a low bandwidth; so most security mechanisms try to reduce the bandwidth of these channels as much as possible. Even a covert channel with a bandwidth as low as 100 baud is in some environments considered to be dangerous. However, actions to limit covert channel bandwidths always limit system performance. For example, in order to avoid the length of messages from being used as an information carrier, all messages can be forced to be of equal length. The problem with this method is that it reduces the available bandwidth of the network as well.
Dealing with Attacks
To deal with any sort of threat or attack on the security of computers, there must be proper security mechanisms in place. Security mechanisms are method, tool, or procedure used to implement the rules stated in the security policy. By specifying "secure" and "non-secure" actions in the security policies, these security mechanisms can help in preventing, detecting and recovering from any attack. The strategies may be used together or separately. Security mechanisms can be classified as: prevention, detection and recovery mechanisms. Within each group, there are many security mechanisms available, where each mechanism focuses on a specific kind of threat and deals with a specific form and aspect of security.
A security prevention mechanism is one that enforces security during the operation of a system by preventing a security violation from occurring. For example restricting physical access to servers, machines or the use of access control mechanisms based on encryption to prevent unauthorized users from accessing objects, etc. Usually prevention involves implementation of mechanisms that users cannot override and that are trusted to be implemented in a correct, unalterable way, so that the attacker cannot defeat the mechanism by changing it. Preventative mechanisms are often very cumbersome and interfere with system use to the point that they hinder normal use of the system. However, some simple prevention mechanisms, such as passwords (to prevent unauthorized users from accessing the system), have become widely accepted.
A detection mechanism is used to detect both attempts to violate security and successful security violations, when or after they have occurred in a system. The goal of the detection mechanism is to determine that an attack is underway, or has occurred, and report it. Alarms can be used to detect unauthorized physical accesses and audit trails can be used to detect unusual system activities after they have occurred. Typical detection mechanisms monitor various aspects of the system, looking for actions or information indicating an attack. A good example of such a mechanism is one that gives a warning when a user enters an incorrect password three times. The login may continue, but an error messages in a system log reports the unusually high number of mistyped passwords. The resources protected by the detection mechanism must be monitored continuously or periodically.
A recovery mechanism is for restoring the system to a pre-security violation state and is normally used after a security violation has been detected. For example if the attacker deletes a file, a recovery mechanism could be to restore the file from backup tapes. Practically, recovery is far more complex due to the unique nature of each attack. Moreover, the attacker may return, so recovery involves identification and fixing of the vulnerabilities used by the attacker to enter the system. In some cases, retaliation (by attacking the attacker's system or taking legal action) is part of recovery.
It is also possible to make mechanisms that belong to several of these categories. A program registering all unusual system activities and thus working as a detection mechanism, may also prevent security breaches from occurring simply because it exists. In a system with a total lack of vulnerabilities and where the security prevention mechanisms fully implement all rules stated in the security policy, there would be no need for detection and recovery mechanisms.
Below are few techniques or tools that will help in implementing these security mechanisms.
Physical Access Security
The first line of defense locally to protect network equipment such as servers, switches, and routers is to keep them in a locked, climate controlled, and fire protected environment. If equipment is not physically accessible to unauthorized personnel, there is less chance of accidental or intentional tampering. It is important that access to critical system components such as the server is restricted to a small number of individuals (usually the administrator and his backup). The server should be located in a locked room to which access is restricted. Other considerations should include protection of equipment against theft, fire, and electrical hazards.
Login / Password Security
One of the main computer security elements is login names and passwords. Every system uses some form of password authentication and therefore must store a representation of the password in order to check whether a logon attempt is valid. Login and password security policy require that any user accessing a workstation or server have a valid login ID and password. Windows NT, Windows 2000, Windows XP, Novell Netware, and UNIX all have specific requirements for creating and changing passwords. The system administrator can also require that passwords be changed periodically. Setting screen savers that time out and activate the workstation lock are additional measures that enhance login security. If hardware manufactures supports, one can also set a NetBios password. This password is hardware dependent, less trivial to bypass than other passwords and comes up before an interloper has access to anything.
It has been common knowledge for quite some time that login names and password authentication schemes are inherently weak. Users usually choose bad passwords (i.e., ones that can easily be guessed), write passwords down, and mail passwords to co-workers or share passwords freely by telephone. For this reason, high security environments do not rely on password authentication alone, but combine password security with smart cards or biometrical authentication systems (finger, voice or eye iris scan).
Anti-Virus Software
In last few years, with the extensive use of the Internet, networks, and email, computers have become more vulnerable to virus attacks and threats. A virus can spread any time files are shared on a local system or the Internet and can do tremendous damage to individual PCs and network servers. Therefore, an early detection and prevention mechanism is very important for the security of the computer. Using antivirus software is a good way to detect viruses and it is advisable to use antivirus software on network operating systems and workstations for adequate protection.
Antivirus software is a program that searches the computer systems for any known or potential viruses. Antivirus programs are intended to prevent and detect viruses. Antivirus software may work differently and ranges from large security packages to small programs designed to handle a specific virus. While some software are designed to scan hard disks and floppy disks for infected programs, others check for any changes in files and alert the user if there are changes, which might indicate an infection. Antiviruses are very helpful in detecting viruses that are already in a system or that are attempting to enter a system and alerting the user to take action. Anti-viral software can be set up to run automatically each time a computer boots or run an executable. And antivirus software can be executed manually in case of a virus attack or threat.
Remote Access Security
Remote access means using any of the resources of a network (file server, printers, workstations) from a remote location-that is, a location not directly attached to the network. Remote access presents particular security risks of unauthorized system access. In remote access, the remote computer takes over a computer connected to the network and operates that computer remotely. Actual data traffic remains on the network between the PC that is being controlled and the rest of the network. Only screen images, keystrokes, and mouse motion are sent across the remote link. In a remote access, as the remote user is invisible, any formal or informal security measures operating at the workplace is not effective. The remote user has access not only to network resources, but also to local resources on the controlled workstation.
Simple password protection is not at all reliable for remote access systems. Over the modem all users are equally unknown. And also remote access typically occurs during off hours when the intruder has plenty of time to experiment, try multiple passwords and avenues of access, all unnoticed. Some systems erect extensive barriers to penetration, including modem access to a limited set of programs and files. A system with external access is, however, never fully secure against smart intruders. External access can be restricted by means of automatic callback systems. With such systems users must provide the system with pre-authorized telephone numbers from which they can call the system. Under this mechanism when a user calls and identifies him to the system, the system calls him back at one of the pre-authorized numbers before the access is allowed.
Internet Firewalls
Firewalls are an excellent tool for securing a network. A firewall is system designed to prevent unauthorized access to or from a private network and basically limits access to a network from another network. Firewall that can be implemented in hardware or software, or a combination of both either denies or allows outgoing traffic known as egress filtering or incoming traffic known as ingress filtering. 
Threats, Attacks, Hackers & Crackers
In an organizational setup, firewalls are frequently used to prevent unauthorized Internet users from accessing private networks connected to the Internet, especially intranets. All messages entering or leaving the intranet pass through the firewall, which examines each message and blocks those that do not meet the specified security criteria. A firewall should be the first line of defense in protecting the availability, integrity, and confidentiality of data in the computing environment. While a company may use packet-filtering routers for perimeter defense and host-based firewalls as an additional line of defense, in the home environment, the personal firewall plays a key role by defending the network and individual host perimeters.
Encryption
Physical access to a computer or network can allow access to sensitive data to unauthorized persons. To protect certain data from being released inappropriately, it should be encrypted before transmission. Encryption means translating the data into a secret code reversible only by an authorized user with the required key (or password). This process of recovering the encrypted data is known as decryption. Unencrypted data is called plain text and encrypted data is referred to as cipher text. However it should be noted that data encryption is a compute intensive process and should be used only when necessary.
Encryption can limit disclosure of sensitive information, but distribution of encryption keys can be a burden and the data may be compromised if key distribution is not handled appropriately. An encryption or decryption key may be distributed via a user authentication system. When a program provides inadequate security or extra protection is needed for some data or documents, an encryption/decryption program may be a useful tool.
Data Backups
Backup is the act of copying files to a second medium such as a diskette, zip drive or tape, as a precaution in case the first medium (hard disk) fails. A copy of files maintained on a second medium (a disk or tape) as a precaution in case the first medium fails. Data backup provides ways to protect data in case of a physical problem with the computer system such as a hard disk failure or power failure. It is vitally important to back up of software and key files since even the most reliable computer is apt to break down eventually. There are many techniques for backing up files depending up on the type of data, convenience of the recovery process, etc. The basic types of backups that can be performed are:
Normal or Full backups: All files that have been selected are backed up, regardless of the setting of the archive attribute. When a file is backed up, the archive attribute is cleared. If the file is later modified, this attribute is set, which indicates that the file needs to be backed up. In this type of back up, it's easy to find files when required. Since full backups include all data on the hard drive, one doesn't have to search through several disks or tapes to find the files to restore. But there is a drawback with the full backups that they are redundant backups. Since most of the files on the system rarely change, each backup following the first is mostly a copy of what has already been backed up. Also full backups take longer to perform and can be very time consuming.
Differential backups: Designed to create backup copies of files that have changed since the last normal backup. The presence of the archive attribute indicates that the file has been modified and only files with this attribute are backed up. However, the archive attribute on files isn't modified. This allows the user to perform other types of backups on the files at a later date. In comparison to the full backups, the differential backups take lesser time. Hence, it provides more efficient restores. However, differential backups are also redundant backups. Each day's backup would store much of the same information plus the latest information added or created since the last Full Backup.
Daily backups: Daily backup is designed to back up files using the modification date on the file itself. If a file has been modified on the same day as the backup, the file will be backed up. This technique doesn't change the archive attributes of files.
Disaster Recovery Plan
In today's interconnected economy, organizations are more vulnerable than ever to the possibility of technical difficulties disrupting business. Disaster recovery has taken on a new sense of urgency in recent years. Emerging issues like terrorism, hackers, computer viruses, an increased reliance on computers, and the increasing occurrence of emergencies and disasters have all led to an increased need to prepare for disasters that can affect the availability, integrity, and confidentiality of critical business resources. Disaster recovery planning is the technological aspect of business continuity planning. Disaster Recovery can be defined as the ability to respond to an interruption in services by implementing a disaster recovery plan to restore an organization's critical business functions. It incorporates not only planning for any imaginable type of disaster that may hinder the operations of a business, but also putting measures in place to avoid such disaster altogether. Disaster might be something huge like an earthquake or the terrorist attacks on the World Trade Center (that affected everything from telephones to the New York Stock Exchange) or something comparatively small like system/software failure caused by a computer virus. Disaster recovery strategies can include the use of alternate sites, redundant data centers, disaster insurance, business impact analyses and legal liabilities.
Audits
Security audits should be performed by larger organizations periodically to ensure that the organization and its users are following the security policy and preparing adequately for disaster recovery. A security audit also determines the issues such as risk to a business, breach in information security, etc. Security audit checks whether the computer/network is vulnerable to the intruders (both insider and outsiders) or not; through in-depth series of interviews and configuration checks. If audit identifies any weaknesses in company's security status, then it recommends pragmatic ways of implementing a security policy that would help in protecting personnel and vital data.
Introduction
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